Comparison Between The Number of Web Sites of The Gulf Cooperation Research Paper

Comparison Between The Number of Web Sites of The Gulf Cooperation Council and its Services and E-Government Website - Research Paper Example However, in order to distribute information on the internet, an interface is used, which is known as a Web site. A Web site contains a lot of hyperlinks and contents conveying the message of that particular Web site (Norton, 2001; Shelly et al., 2005). For instance, a web site of a university contains information about that university. In the same way, the Hukoomi is a Web Portal, which offers the people access to information regarding the State of Qatar. It links us with government programs, services, initiatives and events (Government of Qatar, 2012). In addition, through cooperation with government organizations and public service suppliers, the Hukoomi has appeared to build online information more readily accessible at our fingertips. Additionally, the online national web portal hosts a number of significant e-services, and government service application, documents, forms and general information (Government of Qatar, 2012). This report presents a detailed comparison between a num ber of Web sites of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) and their services and other e-government websites to know the country and the needs of the Country Website development and optimization and preference. This report will present a detailed analysis of a wide variety of aspects of the Hukoomi in comparison with rest of the Gulf States in terms of electronic services and e-government support. The basic purpose of this comparison is to determine the needs and requirements that are necessary to know for building an effective and informative web site. This analysis will determine what should be included in the web site to make it perfect, with the intention that it could better serve its community. A detailed Comparison This section presents a detailed comparison between different web sites. For this purpose, I have divided this comparison into different parts (depending on the features of a web site). In this scenario, I will compare different features and services which are availab le or should be available at Hukoomi but it is not there and what services are available on other portals. 1- National Overview The first feature or support that we will analyze in this comparison is about presentation of national overview. In this scenario, the Hukoomi offers a good national overview; however, at this web site comprehensive national overview is missing. The national overview of Hukoomi can include information regarding national resources, population, geography and tourism. On the other hand, the Main Page of existing website does not contain such details. As this web site is aimed at presenting a detailed overview of the country so it needs to offer a brief but comprehensive overview of the State of Qatar. In this scenario, we need to add some links in a small portion of the Main Page of the website so that people could know about

Human factors in aviation accidents Essay Example for Free

Human factors in aviation accidents Essay As a result of researches that recognized the existence of human factors in error management, the aviation industry also began to take initiatives to reformat aviation organisations. The aviation industry shifted to a more open culture that valued communication and at the same time recognized that human error will always be present but through time and more advanced studies can be reduced further (Sexton, Thomas Helmreich, 2000). Almost all aspects have been looked into. Selection and training processes were raised to a different level. While technical skills were highly valued before, they have been found to be inadequate in dealing with safety concerns. Selection of aircrew now includes processes that determine their ability to learn from errors and to become team players. There also has been a new approach for training – not only the pilots, but the entire crew is trained. There are also a mounting number of interventions that are being tested for their effectivity to modify behavioral patterns that could injure a system’s safety. Because crew resource management (CRM) failure is implicated in most aircraft accidents, CRM training programs, which began as a part of a National Aeronautics and Space Administration [NASA] program in 1979, began to be widely received by aviation organisations. Now on its 5th generation, CRM trainings for the crew have been conducted by major airlines and even the navy. The CRM training program encompasses many aspects of aviation safety such as situation awareness, task management and communication (Thomas, 2004). The 5th generation CRM programs can be viewed as a tool to effectively manage errors. CRM combats errors in three ways: obviously, the first one is the avoidance of error; the second Human Factors in Aviation Accidents 10 one is the â€Å"suppression† of the error before it happens; and third, the mitigation of the effects of the errors should it not be avoided (Helmreich, Merritt Wilhelm, 1999). The focus of the 5th generation CRM is the normalization of errors – whether due to active or latent failures – and the development of strategies to manage these errors (Helmreich, Merritt Wilhelm, 1999). Although CRM programs focus on human errors and its effects on aviation safety, it is never entirely a behavioral training. After all, if you recall, a â€Å"productive system† is an interaction of human and technological factors. Therefore, CRM is not to be taken as a stand-alone program. It is meant to be incorporated to technical trainings where the crew has to be adept in the operation of modern aviation technology and at the same time has to learn non-technical skills such as effective communication, coordination and teamwork. Despite the fact that intervention programs like the CRM has been introduced and conducted for crews in major and regional airlines for the two decades, the percentage of CRM failures in aviation accidents remained relatively flat (Wiegmann Shappell, 2001). Although initial results of CRM programs have been found to be encouraging such that positive results were seen almost immediately after the conduction of the program, it was soon obvious that such results were short-lived (Taneja, 2002). What could have happened that prevented such interventions to perform as expected? Helmreich Merritt (2000) offers an explanation at least for CRM. First, not everybody responds to CRM training. Some may have become less accepting of CRM after the training. Although attitudes do not necessarily define behavior, it has been a well-known maxim that those who reject a concept are more likely not to follow the principles that it imparts. (Helmreich, Merritt Wilhelm, 1999). Human Factors in Aviation Accidents 11 Culture – national, professional and organisational – is also a significant factor that determines the level of acceptance for a CRM concept (Helmreich Merritt, 2000). When CRM was introduced to other national cultures, it soon became evident that certain CRM concepts can either be readily accepted or rejected depending on the national culture. Cultures such as China and many Latin American countries that stress the importance of absolute power and authority of their leaders will necessarily be less receptive to the idea of subordinates questioning the decisions of their leaders, than cultures that are less hierarchical (Hofstede, 1980 as cited by Helmreich, Merrit Wilhelm, 1999). While CRM programs encourage subordinates to be more assertive in questioning their leaders, junior crew members in these cultures are quite disinclined to do this because of fear of showing disrespect. These same cultures are also collectivists who stress interdependenc and the necessity to work together for a common goal. In contrast, American and European cultures, which are highly individualistic, give more value to independence and more priority to individual goals. The value of teamwork and the need for coordination will most likely be readily accepted in the former than in the latter. There are also High Uncertainty Avoidance cultures like Greece, Korea and many Latin American countries that prefer CRM concepts already specifying required behaviors. Cultures that are low in Uncertainty Avoidance tend to be more flexible when it comes to behaviors but have difficulty adhering to standard operating procedures. Furthermore, this kind of culture, along with non-collectivist cultures are more questioning with regards to the usage of automation while High Uncertainty Avoidance and collectivist cultures accept the idea of automation usually without, or relatively less, questions. Intervention programs such as CRM should therefore not be patterned after a single national culture. From the discussion it can be seen above that autocratic cultures can also Human Factors in Aviation Accidents 12 value teamwork and interdependence than non-autocratic cultures (Helmreich, in press). Cultures exhibiting difficulty of adherence to SOPs may be more innovative when dealing with novel situations not covered by procedures. In contrast, cultures who stress strict adherence to rules may find it difficult to be more flexible in new situations. Although CRM programs require behavior modification, certain beliefs ingrained into a culture are quite difficult to modify. If CRM has to attain widespread global use, it has to design programs that are congruent to national culture and yet still enhances safety. Error management should therefore be embraced as a culture in itself. Focusing on threat and error management as goals, training programs should not aim for a total reversal of norms and beliefs but rather for a drawing out of positive behaviors without directly confronting national culture. Many professions, including aviation, have strong cultures and develop their own norms and values (Helmreich, in press). Each culture encompasses both positive and negative aspects. Aircrew for example has a high level of motivation and a strong sense of professional pride. The negative component, which is seen to be universal, is the inability to admit vulnerability to stressors. Majority of pilots in almost all national cultures agree that their decision-making abilities are not hampered by personal problems and that it is as good in emergency situations as in normal situations. Furthermore, most of these pilots have indicated that they do not make errors even while under stress. This â€Å"macho† culture, when left uncorrected, can lead to risk taking, failure to coordinate with other crew members and error. Indeed, one focus of the 5th generation CRM program is to help pilots acknowledge that human error does occur and they are more vulnerable to it if they continue to deny the existence and effect of stressors. As stated earlier, the organisational culture determines the principle of the organisation towards safety. One reason why CRM does not deliver results when it should is Human Factors in Aviation Accidents 13 the organisational context on which the program was delivered (Helmreich Merritt, 2000). Organisations may have a highly evolved safety culture and possesses a positive outlook on safety. Such organisations will most likely benefit from CRM and other intervention strategies. Others react only to safety threats once they are looming while some organisations give perfunctory attention to safety issues without really embracing a safety culture that works towards a highly effective accident prevention program. The current process of investigating errors during accidents also contributes to the apparently limited success of intervention strategies. Most accident reporting systems are primarily technological and have been designed with little regard to human factors. Such systems are on their way to being perfected in terms of identifying mechanical failures but in itself is also a bit of a failure when it comes to assessment of human errors (Wiegmann Shappell, 2001). An examination of an accident investigation process may help drive down the point. When an accident due to mechanical failure happens, investigators examine objective and quantifiable information such as that obtained from the flight data recorder. The data is processed and the probable causes of the accident are recorded so that safety recommendations can be identified. After the investigation, the data obtained is entered into a database which can be periodically accessed to provide feedback to investigators. The information in the database can also be used by funding organizations to determine which researches to fund. As a result, intervention strategies are further developed to prevent mechanical failure from happening or mitigate consequences once they do happen (Helmreich Merritt, 2000). Either way, the number of accidents due to mechanical failures has been greatly reduced. Human Factors in Aviation Accidents 14 In contrast, investigations of accidents due to human errors produce results that are not tangible and are difficult to quantify. And because the studies of human factors came later than studies of mechanical failures, investigative techniques used in human error analysis are less refined than those used to assess engineering and design concerns. When these techniques are used to analyze accident data, the results are rarely very useful and safety issues cannot be readily addressed. Therefore any intervention strategy designed using this data is not assured of success. Taneja (2002) echoes this concern stating that human errors have been implicated in 70-80% of aircraft accidents demonstrating the very limited success of current intervention strategies and also proposes a solution: a holistic approach to intervention strategies. To date, most researches on human factors in aviation have focused on specific aspects of aircraft accident prevention. Sarter and Alexander (2000) have observed that current researches on human error focus mainly on three key aspects: the development of error classification schemes, the design of error-tolerant systems, and error prevention through improved design and additional training (as cited by Taneja, 2002). Because accident prevention is such a wide field of study, it is very possible that certain aspects have been missed out or overlooked. Error framework also abound as almost every human factor researcher comes up with his own error framework. With so many intervention strategies proposed by researchers and some even practiced in the industry, there have been inadequate attempts to integrate these strategies into a holistic solution. A holistic approach to intervention strategies involve looking at all the possible links to an aircraft accident in order to come up with an intervention that best fits an organisation. Basing on all the links, an organisation must assess in what area their weaknesses lie and determine if these need intervention. The intervention strategy to be used in a certain Human Factors in Aviation Accidents 15 organisation will therefore be customized according the weak links in the organisation’s system. The two links that are directly related to aviation accidents are the aircraft and the aircrew. Although accidents due to mechanical failures have been greatly reduced to advancement in technology, there needs to be constant assessment of the aircraft in general and the human factors affecting the man-machine interface in particular (Taneja, 2002). Intervention strategies that can be applied to aircrew can be divided into two broad categories: selection and training. Ever since the knowledge that human factors contribute to aviation accidents, the selection process have been amended such that the pilots are not chosen based on technical skill alone but more so on their ability to coordinate with fellow aircrew, recognize their own errors and be willing to work with others to deal with these errors. Once chosen, the pilot’s training will have a great impact on his proficiency and possibly, on his ability to avoid accidents. Possible interventions on these two main links can have a major influence on the number of accidents encountered by the organisation. The process of accident investigation, although a secondary link, should also be looked into in for possible intervention strategies. To date there is no benchmark as to the training and expertise a safety investigator must have. In order for a standardised level of investigation to be achieved, there needs to be a minimum with regards to the exposure an investigator must have. The investigative tools that the safety investigator uses could also be subject to an intervention. As discussed earlier, investigation techniques for human errors are inadequate at present and needs further researches in order the reach the level of refinement of evaluative techniques for mechanical failures. The kinds of human errors as discussed by Wiegmann and Shappell (2001) while developing HFACS, are also links that could be used to come up with more effective Human Factors in Aviation Accidents 16 intervention strategies. Furthermore, autopsy results during aircraft accidents, although unable to prevent future accidents, can be used to design intervention strategies that will make an aircraft accident more survivable. Upon carefully assessing the links just mentioned and determining the areas that need intervention, it is recognized that the success of any strategy ultimately depends on the Organisational Safety Culture (Taneja, 2002). Toft (1989) defined an organisation’s safety culture as â€Å"the set of norms, beliefs, attitudes and roles, social and technical practices that minimizes the exposure of the managers, employees and the general public to conditions considered dangerous or injurious† (as cited by Taneja, 2002). Discussed in brief earlier, the way an organisation handles errors and error management strategies depend on its safety culture. A safety conscious organisation will not treat an accident as just another unavoidable circumstance but rather will focus its efforts in preventing future accidents from happening. A careful investigation that searches for the possible factors leading to the occurrence of the accident will be performed. Ideally, an organisation with a highly effective safety culture will aim to plug the hole in the Swiss cheese model before another opportunity for a catastrophe will be created (Reason, 1990 as cited by Taneja, 2002). Even organisations that have a sound safety culture however can still be plagued by errors caused by human limitations such as fatigue, severe workloads, inadequate training, poorly-maintained equipment and errors caused by the air traffic control which would consequently affect the aircrew and the organisation. Even if the organisation has tried to remove every conceivable active and latent failure, chance errors can still take place (Heimrich Merritt, 2000). But every organisation is bound to have a loophole. Thus, constant monitoring of all aspects in the organisation , whether directly related to safety or not, is essential. Human Factors in Aviation Accidents 17 Because errors can arise from a variety of sources, any single intervention strategy, such as the CRM must not be taken as a panacea for eliminating error. CRM is only a tool that organisations use to perform error management. All intervention strategies have its limitation – the effects it will have on an organisation depends on the national culture, the strengths and weaknesses of the professional culture, and the organisational safety culture. Furthermore, the way the people at the frontline perceive the intervention strategy will affect the outcome of such a strategy. In summary, the study of human factors affecting aircraft accidents has fostered an abundance of researches in this field. With the conception of CRM almost three decades ago, numerous error frameworks and intervention strategies have been proposed and used. Unfortunately, such a plethora of studies have not created a significant reduction on human error-related aircraft accidents. Presumably because it is still a relatively young field, the researches need more focus and the intervention strategies need more refinement. Intervention strategies have to address differences in national, professional and organisational culture. It is also important that intervention strategies be customized to a certain organisation to ensure a greater amount of success. With the continuous development and improvement of researches in this field, there will bound to be a breakthrough in time, and the success that has long been sought will finally be at hand. Human Factors in Aviation 18. References Helmreich, R. L. (in press). Culture, threat and error: Assessing system safety. In Safety in Aviation: The Management Commitment: Proceedings of a Conference. London: Royal Aeronautical Society.Retrieved October 2, 2007 from http://homepage. psy. utexas. edu/HomePage/Group/HelmreichLAB/Publications/pubfiles/Pub257. pdf. Helmreich, R. L. Merritt, A. C. (2000). Safety and error management. The role of Crew Resource Management. In B. J. Hayward and A. R. Lowe (Eds. ), Aviation Resource Management. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate Publishing Ltd. 107-119. Helmreich, R. L. Merritt, A. C. Wilhelm, J. A. (1999). The evolution of Crew Resource Management training in commercial aviation. International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 9(1):19-32. Reason, J. (2000). Human error: Models and management. BMJ, 320(7237): 768-770. Sexton, J. , Thomas, E. J. Helmreich, R. L. (2000). Error, stress and teamwork in medicine and aviation: cross sectional surveys. BMJ, 320:745-749. Taneja, N. (2002). Human factors in aircraft accidents: A holistic approach to intervention strategies. Retrieved October 1, 2007 from www. humanfactors. uiuc. edu/ReportsPapersPDFs/humfac02/tanejahf02. pdf. Thomas, M. J. W. (2004). Error management training: Defining best practice. ATSB Aviation Safety Research Grant Scheme Project 2004/0050. Retrieved October 1, 2007 from www. atsb. gov. au/publications/2004/pdf/error_management_training_best_practice. pdf. Wiegmann, D. A. Shappell, S. A. (2003). A human error approach to aviation accident analysis. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate Publishing Ltd. Human Factors in Aviation Accidents 19 Wiegmann, D. A. Shappell, S. A. (2001 February). A human error analysis of commercial aviation accidents using the Human Factors Analysis and Classification System [HFACS]. Office of Aviation Medicine. Retrieved October 2, 2007 from www. hf. faa. gov/docs/508/docs/cami/0103. pdf.

The Glorious Political Revolution

The Glorious Political Revolution In the immediate aftermath following the Revolution of 1688-1689 John Locke discusses the premise by which governments were initially created. That is, their function in society is to protect the property that came into existence through human labor. Furthermore he argues that because governments were created to serve the needs of people, the people therefore served as a necessary and legitimate check on the authority of the sovereign (32). In essence government is an essential conduit of the people it rules, and therefore must be aligned with a nations best interests in mind. Additionally, it is vital that these interests be in lieu with the wants and needs of those governed. Though from a political standpoint, the process by which groups of people make collective decisions often involving social relations involving intrigue to gain authority or power is at times, historically speaking, flawed. Several ideological standpoints help to distinguish the Glorious Revolution of 1688-89 as a political calibration of authority to better suit the needs of the English people. Though the Glorious Revolution marks pivotal innovations and advancements in religion, economics, and foreign policy it is arguable that the developments of the sociopolitical discourse from before and after the revolution were facilitated by the adjustment in authority. In its most basic form, the Revolution was a testament of the English nation to realign the desires of its citizens with its rulers. Though the extent to which the events that took place between 1688-1689 denote a revolution per say are debatable, it is suffice to say that there was severe dissonance throughout England leading to this period. Monarchial absolutism is susceptible to corruption. When a king has no one to answer to but God, where do checks and balances come into play? Seemingly enough, in the accounts of Thomas Cartwright in A Defense of James IIs View of the Constitution, tis God alone who can take vengeance upon him (72). To fully understand the emergence of the Glorious Revolution it is pivotal to recount the events and notions that spurned such a unique occurrence. An amalgam of socio-political and religious issues formed the foundation of what would become the Glorious Revolution. It is significant to keep in mind the discourse of the times. That is, religiously speaking, England was predominantly Protestant. To have a Catholic king would provoke much dissent. Prior to the Revolution, there existed a motif of general distrust between the monarchs in power and English citizens. Though Charles IIs reign was met with praise from many in 1660, several had suspicions of the Stuarts religious practices. Their suspicions were confirmed by Charles institution of the Secret Treaty of Dover with Louie XIV. Additionally, it was common knowledge that Charles heir and brother, James II, was a devout Catholic. Charles II exacerbated the situation by abstaining with parliament, tolerating Roman Catholics, and favoring alliances with Catholic European forces. After Charles IIs death in 1865, James II ascended the throne upon which he instituted several unpopular reforms that only lowered his standing throughout the nation. Furthermore, his absolutist regime came under attack by his illegitimate nephew James Duke of Monmouth. The Duke was unable to rally enough support amongst the nobles and gentry since he portrayed his rebellion solely as a war of religion. Steven Pincus discusses how the lesson of the previous century of European history was that of wars of religion furthermore these battles only resulted in massive bloodshed and political confusion (13). Unfortunately for the Duke of Monmouth, this resulted in his bloodshed and the slaughter of all those that conspired with him. Upon crushing the rebellion James II argued the need for a standing army. His institution of Catholic tolerance in the Test Act from Charles II reign and imposition of the First and Second Declarations of Indulgence gained him the distrust of even the noble Tories. Those that wouldnt bend to his will were either ousted or removed from positions of power. Though James regime seems to revolve around the issue of religion, the political significance of his actions is uncanny. James intrusive and oftentimes imposing methods of governing garnered him many enemies as evidenced by accounts of Englishmen of the time. Pincus discusses how the Glorious Revolution was not a war of religion. Rather it was a political struggle in which the rights and material welfare of the people were at stake (31). The final straw seems to originate from the birth of James son the Catholic heir. Fears of another absolutist Catholic regime sparked panic in the hearts of many. No more would English citizens stand victim to constitutional obstructions. It is fair to conclude that James IIs short reign was tattered with tyrannical despotism. This marks a critical flaw in pre-revolutionary English government. The appointment of a monarch who, according to Thomas Cartwright, answers only to God is a recipe for corruption. Though, it is not absurd that a monarchs rei gn could be benign and beneficial for a nation, James II, by Pincus account, seems to be the carnation of a corrupt absolutist. It is important to understand that the revolution of 1688-89 was a product of necessity. The trends that followed the monarchial system were counterproductive. Forward, there emerges yet another motif regarding the sentiment towards James rule. This motif highlights the common opinion regarding necessity to govern with national interests at the forefront of all else. Interestingly enough this was grounds for unity amongst all classes. Though James regime was marred with obstructions on mans sacred rights, he was able to unify England under a common cause. Unfortunately for James, it was not in his best interest. The fundamental benefit from any unfortunate experience is the knowledge gained to prevent its future occurrence. Pincus is very convincing in his analysis of James IIs reign as a harsh despot. Though on the same token, his account of the buildup to the Glorious Revolution accounts for the developing sentiments amongst English citizens throughout James reign. Richard Price, in A Celebration of the Revolution of 1688-1689, discusses the function of civil government as an institution of human prudence for guarding our persons, our property, and our good name against invasionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Obedience, therefore, to the laws and to magistrates, is a necessary expression of our regard to the community (50). He goes on to discuss three principles on which the revolution was founded: First, the right to liberty of conscience in religious matters. Secondly, the right to resist power when abused. And, thirdly, the right to choose our own governors; to cashier them for misconduct; and to frame a government for ourselves (50). Like in the post revolutionary writings by John Locke, Price divulges on the function of government as an institution to service the masses. Furthermore, Price discusses when political reformation is necessary. By his word, obstruction of these sentiments accounts for upheaval of those in charge. We see the recurrence of the motif highlighting the significance of public interest in governmental procedure. However, the most significant premises he highlights are the principles that define the sacred right of mankind. These define the precedent by which revolution is legitimate. With this in mind, the birth of James IIs heir seemed to be a one of several unifying factors in ousting James II. This final straw facilitated action throughout England as highlighted by the Invitation of the Seven to the Prince of Orange. Understanding the significance of the childs birth, Seven Whig and Tory noblemen pleaded to the Dutch prince William, and his wife Mary (the Protestant daughter of James) to come to England and seize control of the crown. They suggested this on the premise that William would have practically undivided support from the gentry and nobles your Highness may be assured there are nineteen parts of twenty of the people throughout the kingdom who are desirous of a change, and who we believe would willingly contributeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (38). This document is incredibly significant in that it demonstrates the English sentiment towards James IIs absolutist/Catholic rule. In a united effort these noblemen took the initiative to secure Englands political situation with the help of Prince William. Yet, the risks they took to even write this letter were extreme. Had they been caught by James II, they most certainly would be liable for treason. Yet still the desperation these men faced was fuel enough for them to take this risk. The people are so generally dissatisfied with the present conduct of the government in relation to their religion, liberties, and properties (all of which have been greatly invaded), and they are in such expectations of their prospects being daily worseà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (38). It is important to note two inferences from this letter. First, that the seven men were Whigs and Tories. This indicates that the general consensus, even with the Tories, was to strip James of his power. And second this letter highlights the developing shift of power from absolute monarchy to limited monarchy. Yet, a means to force a monarch to follow the laws of man was still a necessity. Growing sentiment against James II inspired many to question the efficiency of absolutism as evidenced by the letter from the noblemen. Socrates once said Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it. In this case it is understandable that the English citizens had more than they coul d tolerate when it came to monarchial corruption. Undoubtedly, with this in mind, political reformation was imminent. . It is crucial to note, that the shift in power that eventually took place was not the result of many violent struggles. Rather it was a united front fueled by the fervor of the English citizens to reassert dominion over their nation. Based on these accounts it is understandable that the English people were taking initiative to establish a legitimate representative order. Though the reasons for the Glorious Revolution were socio-political and religious, the true nature of the revolution undoubtedly revolved around politics. After all, the reassertion of power by William III was the key factor in facilitating any progress. William IIIs arrival marked the fall of James regime. The revolution was dubbed Glorious on the basis that relatively little blood was shed in the transfer of power. Francis Barrington and Benjamin Steeles A Letter Describing the Revolution to Thomas Goodwin and Kinnard Delabere is an account of the astounding nature of this revolution. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦never anythin g happened with so many amazing circumstances as this hath done the bonding of the spirits of people so universally one way, nay even the minds of persons whose long differing with each otherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ be reconciledà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ and all without the loss of 50 men on all sides makes it the most astonishing alteration that ever yet befell any one part of the universe (45). The general sentiment against James II was grounds to unify England in an effort to oust his corrupt regime. This, among all else, seems to be most accountable for the bloodless nature of the revolution. England was united under William IIIs reign and as Price recalled the rights of the people were asserted, a tyrant expelled, and a sovereign of our own choice appointed in his room. On most accounts, England was victorious. However, much work still needed to be done. William IIIs dominion denotes a period of reform as highlighted by the shift from absolute monarchy to a limited monarchy. Pincus notes how historians understand the revolution as an event that restored Englands ancient polity and Englands Protestant religion. Englands revolution was restorative not innovative, conservative not radical yet this is very debatable (6). The question at hand is whether the values and policies adopted after the revolution were indigenous ones or imposed from outside. Essentially this portion of history represents a hybrid return to the fundamentals of old English Government with advancements concurrent to the times. Though reform was developed on the basis of the wants and needs of the English people, their monarch was from the Netherlands, one of the most tolerant nations of the time. How could there not be foreign influences on policy based on this premise? As Pincus states This was not the same England from Charles Is regime. On this principle it is re cognizable that a large shift in the status quo between the monarchy, parliament, and society had occurred. According to Pincus England had new rulers who, it appeared were placed on the throne by the will of the English people (3). Essentially the revolution represented the victory of Parliament over a king; moreover a victory for the people. In effect the development of several policies limited the nature of royal authority (3). Yet the essence of the Revolution lay in the Declaration of Rights and the Bill of Rights(3). These documents defined the relationship between the monarch and subjects. Not only did it bar any future Catholic succession to the throne, but it declared the royal legislative and executive powers illegal, and furthermore forbade the crown from levying taxation or maintaining a standing army in peacetime without parliamentary consent. These provisions were offered and accepted by William and Mary. These declarations from the two houses of Parliament outline the extralegal policies of James II and prohibited future kings and queens from repeating the transgressions. It is significant to state that these declarations were not claiming to make new laws, but declaring old laws. In effect we see a milestone in English history and an essential shift in power from the monarch to Parliament. From here on the ascendancy of Parliament was never successfully contended. It is safe to assume that based on this argument, the establishment of Parliament as the supreme power was indeed the catalyst that helped spurn much growth in many spectrums including religion, economics, and social development. It is necessary to compare the different modes of thought that originate from before and after the Glorious Revolution. Thomas Cartwrights A Defense of James IIs View of the Constitution provides a defense for the rights of the crown during the reign of James II. In James justification, Cartwright gives an account by which the crown may rule. As a high churchmen, Cartwright discusses how the king, without question, may follow any religion and pass any decree on the sole premise that they wear the crown, for the king answers to no one but God. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦without catechizing him: for be his heart inclinable to any religion, or none, it leaves him no rivalà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ none but the great God, can over-rule him (72). Yet, ultimately, he fuels his argument on the premise of the kings absolute power. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ the King was the first, and must be the last judge too: for if the people be judge, he is no monarch at all: and so farewell all government. Cartwrights analysis is devel oped from a biased perspective. As a high churchman he maintains the traditional definitions of authority. Essentially high churchmen were highly intolerant, and they believed that people had no right to challenge the right of the monarchial authority. Just as the essence of the revolution is characterized by the words of the Bill of Rights, the essence of James reign is epitomized in Cartwrights analysis. He blatantly states how the kings decisions outweigh the desires and preferences of not only Parliament but the people of England as a whole. Based on Cartwrights perception of the crown, one can understand the extent to which James agreed based on his treacherous regime. In analyzing William IIIs Declaration it is understandable why the people favored his rule, even prior to the ratification of the Bill of Rights. It is both certain and evident to all men that the public peace and happiness of any state or kingdom cannot be preserved where the laws, liberties and customs establis hed, by the lawful authority in it, are openly transgressed and annulled (39). William was of course speaking of James IIs reign. Furthermore, he declares the necessity of Parliamentary involvement to remedy the situation. The last and great remedy for all those evils is the calling of a Parliamentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦(41). William III was the embodiment of necessity. He fit the profile to fill the gap that James would leave. It is important to note once again the peaceful nature of the Glorious Revolution. Had the citizens of England flourished under James rule the circumstances would most definitely be different, but they werent. This bloodless revolution was at its core a demonstration of the nations desire for reform. Though historians argue that the Glorious Revolution was not in fact a revolution. Edmund Burke in The Significance of the Revolution of 1688-1689 suggests that The Revolution was made to preserve our ancient indisputable laws and liberties, and that ancient constitution of government which is our only security for law and liberty and therefore cannot be distinguished as a revolution. Rather it was a restorative event in that it reestablished the ideals already set forth by the English constitution. Though this argument is vaild, it is flawed in the sense that the Glorious Revolution brought about reforms that grounded Parliament as the primary authority. This in effect brings about the hybridization theory in that the events that occurred from 1688-1689 recalibrated English politics as a whole. The major distinguishing factor, as Colley Cibber notes, is that these rights were given substance. Legal guarantees meant little if the king was able to ignore the law. A theory of limited monarchy did not constrain the king if he was not obliged in practice as well as in theory to convene Parliament (17, 49). The major distinguishing factor, as Pincus argues, are three revolutionary changes that had the combined effect of compelling English kings to be limited monarchs: the radical reorientation of English foreign policy, the English political economy, and the Church of England. These revolutionary changes are what distinguish the Revolution of 1688-1689 as the first modern revolution (17). The key point here being that there indeed was a revolution. It is arguable that from the seditious nature of James rule that the English people would never let such occurrences happen again. History would not repeat itself. The function of government is to protect the rights of those governed. Furthermore it is up to those in control to respect the wants and needs of citizens. James IIs rule was marred with tyranny on the premise of divine countenance. The socio-political discourse of the time suggests that there were no checks on the sovereign authority of James II. In effect there was blatant dissonance between the desires of citizens and that of the king. The Glorious Revolution was a revolution from a political standpoint in that there was a direct shift in power from monarchial absolutism to Parliamentary dominion. In conducting his absolutist regime James II was able to unify a nation. Unfortunately for him, he was the force they aimed to relinquish. Though historians like Edmund Burke argue that there was really no revolution, never before had England reached such an effective societal stratification. That is, the status quo was in favor of Parliament, and no longer could monarchs abuse the power they were entrusted by God. Pincus account of the Glorious Revolution as a political revolution is accurate in that there were extreme adjustments in more than just constitutional policies. Though post -revolutionary England was revolutionized on the fronts of foreign policy, economics, and religion; the major reform that facilitated these events stemmed from the reassertion of political dominance. Ultimately the English state was radically altered for the better, but it is essential to note the means by which this occurred. That is, by the will of the English citizens. In a united effort they eliminated the constraints of absolutism, and achieved revolution by their own terms. The term Glorious is perfect in that it exemplifies the state of things following the events of the revolution.

Savannah :: Personal Narrative, Descriptive, Description

As I walked into the hot, sticky gym to say goodbye on the last day of the summer at Camp Glenn Taylor, the air seemed to be trying to smother me. Outside, the rain was bouncing off the sidewalks, keeping the campers inside that day. The kids didn't notice me at first. They were too busy chasing each other around the gym with the frenzy of being trapped indoors for a day. Then, someone spotted me, and I was suddenly swarmed by hugs coming from all directions. Wriggling through the arms of the other campers was Savannah. She buried her dirty, snot-covered face into my side. I chuckled to myself, remembering my first day with her three months ago. The counselors had decided to take the campers for a hike. We corralled them into the cabin and instructed them to apply bug spray because of all the mosquitoes in the woods. Left and right, little fingers squeezed out the spray, gradually covering each body. But not the mischievous Savannah. No, she insisted upon carrying her bug spray with her and zapping the mosquitoes in mid-air. Unfortunately, this also generated a large quantity of insect repellent into the air. Every time I took a breath, my lungs were filled with noxious fumes. I could taste the bitter air on my tongue. It stung my eyes. "Savannah," I called, "Stop using that bug spray! It's making me sick!!!" Savannah scampered behind a tree, and I could hear the "sssssss" of the aerosol can. "Savannah, I'm warning you, leave that can alone. Either put it on your body or give it to me. Do not spray it into the air again." Before I'd hardly finished my last sentence, Savannah was bolting down the trail ahead of me, out of sight. I let out a sigh of exasperation. The summer ahead of me suddenly seemed to get longer. The most distinctive feature of Savannah, besides her ornery personality, is her face. She looks like a sprite or a tree-nymph. She has a heart-shaped face, which is dark brown: a combination of sun tan from many hours of playing outside and dirty from the same thing. Her almond eyes are deep and dark, but almost always carry a twinkle of mischief. Her face is framed by long brown stringy hair that falls below her shoulders. Savannah is a girl of few words, in English at least.

Food Security of Bangladesh Essay

Though they have taken so many initiatives for food security recently, but those are not sufficient comparatively to our growing population. Although food grain is more available in good harvest years, Bangladesh as a whole still has a very low level of nutrition. This means many households and individuals do not eat a balanced, nutritious diet, even in good years. According to the World Bank, approximately 33 million of the 150 million people in Bangladesh cannot afford an average daily intake of more than 1800 kilocalories (the minimum standard for nutrition as set by the World Food Program). For people in most developing countries, the daily calorie average is 2,828. In Bangladesh, that average is only 2,190. Poverty is the major factor effecting food security in Bangladesh. Despite the impressive increases in food grain, around half of Bangladeshis remain below the established food based poverty line. And, as many as one third are living in extreme poverty and severely undernourished. Recent food price increases, regular natural disasters, and strains on the global economic market have caused additional destabilization. Bangladesh is a agricultural land. And our country comprises 30% of GDP by producing food. Rice is our main food and our population requires 55. 0 million tons of rice per year. However our country is now producing 27. 32 million tons for more than 140 million people (BBS and DAE, 2007). Though the growth of productivity goes up, but these growths of productivity cannot reduce the poor people’s hunger of our country. Without rice, Bangladesh cultivates other crop, vegetables and fruits. Though having natural calamities production of these things are well. But to distribute all over the country Bangladesh has to import some. And for this reason market price of these foods remain high for some corrupted business, tax and for unplanned steps of government. For this reasons people of our country suffer a lot recently. Not only this, imbalanced and unequal livelihood is quite responsible for food security. There are so many rich peoples in Bangladesh who leads luxurious life, eat rich and expensive and at the same time waste a lot. And they don’t have any concern about the poor people of their country!

Railway Work Shop

INDEX 1. Acknowledgement 2. Introduction 3. Layout of Railway Workshop 4. Salient Features of Jodhpur Railway Workshop 5. B. T. C. 6. Shop Organization 7. Machine Shop 8. Mill Wright Shop 9. Black Smith & Heat Treatment Shop 10. Roller Bearing 11. Corrosion Shop 12. Brake Gearing Shop 13. Lifting Shop 14. Project ACKNOWLEDGEMENT To make any endeavor successful, especially where the cooperation so many is needed, a lot of help is needed from those who are in a position to help.In the Engineering field only theoretical knowledge cannot satisfy an Engineer’s need and only on the basis an Engineer cannot do field work efficiently therefore it is very important for an Engineering student to opt some training. To get this knowledge every student of engineer college takes training according to his own branch in a well established factory or an organization in which work is being done practical and how practical work is managed in normal working condition. I am grateful to MR. RAJAT B HAGWAT, the Training and placement officer, M. B. M. Engineering College, Jodhpur for giving me the permission fro training.I would like to take this opportunity to thank all those who made my training at NORTH WESTERN RAILWAY WORKSHOP, (JODHPUR) not only possible, but also a learning experience. My sincere thanks to the Sh. Mr. B. C. Soni (B. T. C. Chief Instructor), Mr. M. S. Solanki (Sr. Instructor), Mr. R. K. Jain (Sr. Instructor), Mr. A. K. Gautam (Sr. Instructor), Mr. Rajesh Purohit (Sr. Instructor), Mr. Premdas Vaishnav (Sec. Engineer), Mr. Rajendra (Ju. Engineer), Mr. L. P. Verma (Sr. Sec. Engineer), Mr. Rajendra Sisodia (Store Clerk), Smt. Urmila Solanki (Office Clerk) I also express my sincere thanks to the incharge of B.T. C. for their regular Guidance and their helpful nature without which I cannot complete my training. I am also thankful to all the incharge of Jodhpur Railway Workshop and their sub ordinates and workers, which helped us a lot and shown the interest in u s, it gives me a great pleasure in presenting my training report on Jodhpur Railway Workshop. Sumita Hemrom B. E. II Year Student Mechanical Engineering M. B. M. Engg. College, Jodhpur ADMINISTRATIVE HIERACHYJodhpur workshop is handled by Chief Workshop Manager. He is assisted by a team of officers with the sectional staff as under: C. W. M. Sh. S. D. Meena Dy. C. M. E. Sh. D. S. Bhati W. M. Sh. J. P. Sharma W. E. E. Sh. R. S. Choudhary S. P. O Sh. N. S. Chawada S. A. F. A. Sh. K. C. Ramdeo X. En. Sh. D. R. Choudhary A. W. M. Sh. R. A. Yadav W. A. E. E. Sh. L. D. Gautam A. F. A. Sh. S. S. Ram INTRODUCTION Workshop is located near main Railway station of Jodhpur. This workshop is well established and running successfully as a complete organization.In 1969, to increase administrative efficiency, the post of â€Å"Works Manager† was upgraded to Deputy Chief Mechanical Engineer. Now a days, this workshop has not only stopped importing valuable and costly components but also st arted the production of some essential and sophisticate components. Along with this, the basic role of Jodhpur workshop is: – 1. Periodic over hauling of the Railway coach and bogies at the level. 2. Manufacture and repairing of components used in Diesel engine for Diesel shed. 3. Maintenance and repairing of all the machines, which are installed in Jodhpur Railway station. 4.Now a days, it is also engaged in production of some components, which needs to be replaced in Railway coaches and bogies. There are 16 regional head quarters in India which are as follows:- 1. Western Railway – Mumbai 2. Central Railway – Mumbai 3. Northern Railway – New Delhi 4. Southern Railway – Chennai 5. Eastern Railway – Chennai 6. South Eastern Railway – Calcutta 7. North Eastern Railway – Gorakhpur 8. South Central Railway – Secundarabad 9. North East Frontier Railway – Guwahati 10. East Central Railway – Hazipur 11. North Cen tral Railway – Allahabad 12. North Western Railway – Jaipur 13. West Central Railway – Jabalpur 4. South Western Railway – Hubli 15. South East Central Railway – Bilaspur 16. East Coast Railway – Bhuvaneshwer SALIENT FEATURES OF JODHPUR RAILWAY WORKSHOP | 1. |Total Area | 115339 sq. m. | | 2. |Covered Area (Shed + Buildings) | 48983 sq. m. | | 3. |Track length | 8820. 9 m. | | 4. |Road Length | 1564 m. | | 5. Electric Consumption | 2. 2 lac units/month | | 6. |No. Of Machines | 446 | | 7. |Standby Generation Capacity | 796 KW | | 8. |Power Demand | 1240 KVA | | 9. |Power Factor | 0. 85 | | 10. Water Storage: Underground | 3337 lit. | | |Overhead |225 lit. | | 11. | Pneumatic Power By | 10 Compressors | POWER SUPPLY The electricity is supplied by JVVNL and is also generated by generator sets in case of supply failure. The requirement of electricity in workshop is as follows:- | 1. |Connected Load | 4600 KVA | | 2. Demand | 1360 KVA | | 3. |Maximum Demand | 1400 KVA | | 4. |Actual Utilization: Day Shift | 110-1250 KVA | | |Night Shift |400-500 KVA | | 5. |Average Consumption per day | 9000 Units | | 6. Lighting Consumption Per Month | 15000 Units | Today the staff strength stands at 2400 employees including 150 supervisors and 6 administrative officers. In 1992 it achieved the ISO 9001 certificate. Shop Organization [pic] BLACK SMITH AND HEAT TREATMENT INTRODUCTION Smithing is understood to handle relative small jobs only such as can be heated in an open fire or hearth. The shop in which the work is carried out is known as smithy’s or smithy shop and various operation are performed by means of hand hammer or small power hammers.Forging refers to production of those parts which must be heated in a close furnace. The portion of work in which forging is done is termed as the forge and work is mainly performed by means of heavy hammers, forging machines and presses. Shaping of metal is done either by steady comp ression or by impact between hammer and anvil after heating it above recrystallisation temperature in forging. Forging can be defined as the controlled plastic deformation of metal at elevated temperature in to a predetermined sizes and shapes using compressive forces exerted through some type of die by a hammer, a press or an upsetting machine.The B. S. H. T. shop is divided as:- 1. Draw gear section 2. Buffer section 3. Spring section INSTALLATIONS 1. Pneumatic power hammers (5 nos. ) 250 kg. Capacity-2nos. 500 kg. Capacity-1nos. 1000 kg. Capacity-2nos. 2. Hydraulic presses (3 nos) 3. Combined shearing, punching and nibbing machine (1 nos) 4. Spring testing machine (2 nos. ) 5. Air blowers (2 nos. ) 50 h. p. 6. Grinder (1 nos. ) 7. Circular saw (1 nos) 8. Power hacksaw (1 nos ) 9. Furnace (6 nos) 10. Shot peening machine (1 nos) 11. Tension (proof load ) testing machine (1 nos) PNEUMATIC POWER HAMMER:-The hammer has two cylinders compressor cylinder & ram cylinder. Piston of compr essor cylinder compresses air and delivers it to the ram cylinder where it accelerate the piston, which is integral with ram delivering the blows to the work. The reciprocation of the compression piston is obtained from a crank drive which is powered from a motor through reducing gear. The air distributor device between the two cylinders consist of rotary valves with parts through which air passes into the ram cylinder, blows & above the piston, alternatively. This drives the ram up & down respectively. HYDRAULIC POWER PRESS:-In power press the ram is driven by power instead of hand as in the case of hand press , The principal of a typical forging press is as follows:- The fluid passes first from a large capacity tank to a pump and then is delivered on the press with the aid of an accumulator and distributor at a pressure of at a pressure of at 200 to 300 kg/cm. The accumulator fluid pressure flows into to main cylinder and pressure on the top of the large piston. Since the cross-se ction area of the piston in the main cylinder is large, the press ram is forced down upon the material to be forged which lies on the anvil with high total power.Each power stroke the large piston is returned into its initial position by action of the working fluid on the piston rod in the pull back cylinder. To perform this motion, a relatively lower fluid pressure, but a large volume of water per unit time is required to accelerate the return stroke. FURNACES: The job is heated to correct forging temperature in a hearth or furnaces. The gas and oil are economical, easily controlled and most widely used fuels. In workshop, we used coal and crude oil as fuel forge furnaces are built so as to ensure a temperature up to 1350 degree centigrade in their working chamber.Two types of furnaces are used in this shop:- 1. Coke fired furnaces 2. Coal fired furnaces In cock furnace coke is used as fuel. In oil fired furnaces diesel is used as fuel. Diesel is sent by cast iron pipes from diesel tank in an injector and compressed air is sent on high intensity by a blower. The air jet mixed with diesel is used as fuel in oil fired furnace. Furnace are used to red hot the raw material to the required temperature. Fuel is injected into these furnace with a great pressure associated with air blast. This high pressure is generated by centrifugal air compressor, which is situated in the shop itself.This compressed air from the compressor is then taken to several furnaces through the underground pipes. One man is present near the furnace that puts the raw material and takes out the red-hot material, which is then placed under power hammer. After acquiring the required shape, these products are either hardened by various hardening procedures or simply cooled to the atmospheric temperature. Draw Gear Section:- The draw gear and screw coupling are used to connect two coaches to each other. These are designed for a proof load of 75tones and breaking load of 130t.The components are sp ecially heat treated to achieve the load bearing capacity. In maintenance procedure of draw gear and screw coupling stress relieving is done. The components made of st 60-61 are to be stress relived and the new material introduced for draw gear IS: 5517-93 Grade35Mn6M03 is not to be heat treated. The maximum temperature up to which draw gear can be heated is 550 C. Buffer Section:- Buffers are used to absorb the shock during impact action of coaches. Apart from absorb the impact energy it also guide the coaches to align in track during turn on curvature.Each buffer has capacity of 1030 kg-m with a total stroke of 127 mm. Rubber springs are used in this buffer assembly so it have low absorption capacity in earlier part of the stroke which rises rapidly towards the end resulting in absorption of high shock loads and transmitting of minimum end pressure to under frame. Components of buffer assembly: ? Buffer casing (cast steel) ? Buffer plunger (cast steel, forged) ? Rubber buffer pads ? Buffer spindle ? Destruction tube ? Recoil spring ? Recoil spring parting plate ? Buffing spring parting plate ? Recoil spring washer ? Face plate for buffer plunger M-24 Hex head bolt Spring Section:- The springs are used in the bogie for the suspension system of coaches. There are two types of suspension as primary and secondary suspension. The springs classified to primary and secondary system by the load carried by them. Fig: Inspection procedure:- Inspect all components visually for dimensional distortion and surface defects such as cracks, wear, dent marks and pitting etc. Remove scale, rust, light cracks by grinder. Stress relieving. In case of doubt of cracks dye penetration or magna flux machine is used to check the cracksLoad test is done on load testing machine for 100t to 150t. In all this procedure if component is find ok then it is dispatched to the assembly. ROLLER BEARING In passenger coaches of Indian Railway system, only single bearing type axle box arrangement is used, means only two bearing are used to support the axle. The bearing used for this purpose is of Spherical Type Roller Bearing. CONSTRUCTION:- Spherical roller bearing consist of an outer ring having a spherical race way within which two rows of barrel shaped rollers operate. These rollers are guided by an inner ring with two raceway separated by a center rib.This bearing has self alignment. Spherical roller bearings have a large capacity for radial loads, axle loads in either direction. Spherical roller bearing no. 22336/c3 with 130 mm parallel bore on the inner ring are being used on ICF type coaches. They are directly shrunk fit on the axle journals. These roller bearings are to be inspected periodically as per schedule. Fig: TOOLS AND PLANTS FOR MAINTENANCE OF ROLLER BEARING:- |S. no. |Function |Equipment used | |1. Cleaning of roller bearing |3 stage cleaning plant or pre wash, wash & water rinsing | |2. |Dismounting of spherical roller bearings |Hydraulic dismounting equ ipment-withdrawal nut | |3. |Mounting of roller bearings |Induction heater with demagnetizing device | |4. |Securing of end locking bolts |Torque wrench | |5. |Visual inspection of demounted roller bearings |Magnifying glass with light | |6. Checking of radial clearance |Long feeler gauge | |7. |Measurement of journal |Outside micrometer | | | | | | | | | DISMOUNTING OF BEARING:- ? For dismounting of bearings, special hydraulic dismounting equipment is used.This machine injects oil between the journal and bore to the inner ring with high pressure which expands inner ring resulting in breaking of interference. The bearing becomes loose on the journal and slides over it. The bearing is then removed from the journal and sent to the cleaning plant. ? All components of bearing such as inner ring, outer ring, rollers, and cage are examined for cracks, damage and breakage. If bearing is found free from all the defects mentioned above, the radial clearance is measured with feeler gauge. R adial clearance is not within prescribed limits, the bearing is rejected.RECOMMENDED RADIAL CLEARANCE LIMITS FOR BEARING IN DISMOUNTED CONDITION: |Bearing make |Radial clearance | |SKF |0. 105 to 0. 296 mm | |NBC |0. 080 to 0. 190 mm | MOUNTING OF BEARING:- ? Before mounting the bearings, it is checked that journal and shoulder diameters are within permissible limits. All direct mounted spherical roller bearing have interference fit with axle journal, therefore it requires heating and shrinkage fitting. Heating of bearings is done by using an induction heater. Fig: ? Temperature range for heating the bearing is 100 to 120 centigrade. ? Induction heating is a quick, safe, energy saving and environment friendly process. In this system, bearing is short circuited to perform as a secondary winding whereas the core winding is at primary side. Bearing is placed around a yoke. Due to principal of induction current, bearing is heated due to its electrical resistance and attains the desired temperature. It is recommended to set the machine in such a way that it takes 5 to 7 minutes to attain the temperature of 120c maximum of bearing. ? Heated bearing mounted on journal with the help of hook and it is positioned by giving light taps with plastic hammer. BEARING IS REJECTED FOR THE FOLLOWING DEFECTS: ? Pitted or flaked roller tracks and rollers. ? Cracked or deformed or badly worn out cage ? Cracked inner or outer ring ? Scored or damaged outer surface of the outer ring. ? Indentation or rings or rollers ? Scoring of roller tracks or rollers ? Corrosion damage Excessive or less radial clearance CORROSION SHOP ICF coaches incorporate a no. of pressed steel sections made of thin sheets (1. 6, 2. 0, 2. 5, & 4 mm) and plates of thickness 5 to 16 mm in the construction of the shell. These sheets are considerably stressed as the design of the coaches is based on the principle of a self supporting structure and it is essential that these coaches are maintained in good conditi on free from corrosion. Corrosion is take place when a steel surface comes in contact with moisture. For prevention the corrosion, film of paint is coated on steel surfaces.In addition to it, application of an inhibite Zinc Chromate Red Oxide Primer is done to prevent the surfaces coming in contact with atmosphere. Surfaces which are not finish painted have also been given ? coats of bituminous emulsion which gives added protection to the steel surfaces by excluding moisture along with primer. If due to some reason like abrasive action of sand, the bituminous film brake down, the inhibitive primer acts as a second line of defence. Corrosion of steel surfaces starts only when both the bituminous and the primer suffer mechanical injury.Corrosion is indicated by: ? Flaking of paints ? Flaking of metals ? Pitting and rusting Corrosion can be classified into two categories as vulnerable and not vulnerable. Vulnerable corrosion of parts means, the parts are fully corroded and they should be changed for further operation. The examples of vulnerable members in coaches are tubular frame below lavoratories, trough floor in bays, sole bar, body pillars etc. Not vulnerable parts mean the parts which are corroded to little depth and they may be use still by treatment of corrosion.The examples of mot vulnerable members are head stock inner and outer along with stiffening tubes, roof sheets, body side doors, partition walls, water tank ceiling construction, battery box etc. All the components of coaches are examined in following way for corrosion:- ? Visual inspection ? By spiked hammer ? In the inner surfaces by making g the holes in corresponding component. ? If the components are corroded excess as prescribed limit then change the component by new one. ? And if the component is not so much corroded then repair the component by scrapping old coats of paint and make new coats of paints of anticorrosive layerBRAKE GEAR SHOP Presently coaches are mounted with air brake system instead of vacuum brake system due to better braking application. The air brake used is TWIN PIPE GRADUATED RELEASE AIR BRAKE SUSTEM. In this system two pipes known as feed pipe and brake pipe are used, instead of that there are two brake cylinder on each bogie, one auxiliary reservoir, a distribution valve, a control reservoir etc. The air brake system uses compressed air supplied by the main reservoir in locomotive. The locomotive compressors charge the feed pipe throughout the length of the train .The feed pipe is connected to the auxiliary reservoir and the brake pipe is connected to the brake cylinder through the distributor valve. Brake application takes place by dropping the pressure in the brake pipe. Charging the brake system †¢ Brake pipe throughout the length of train is charged with compressed air at 5 kg/cm2 †¢ Feed Pipe throughout the length of train is charged with compressed air at 6 kg/cm2 †¢ Control reservoir is charged to 5 kg/cm2 †¢ Auxiliary reservoir is charged to 6 kg/cm2 Brake application stage For brake application the brake pipe pressure is dropped by ventilating air from the driver’s brake valve.Subsequently the following actions take place †¢ The control reservoir is disconnected from the brake pipe. †¢ The distributor valve connects the auxiliary reservoir to the brake cylinder and the brake cylinder piston is pushed outwards for applications of brakes. †¢ The auxiliary reservoir is however continuously from feed pipe at 6kg/cm2 |Description |Reduction in B. P Pressure | |Minimum Brake application |0. 5 to 0. kg/cm2 | |Service Brake application |0. 8 to 1. 0 kg/cm2 | |Full service Brake application |1. 0 to 1. 5 kg/cm2 | |Emergency Brake application |Brake pipe is fully exhausted and its pressure reduces | | |to almost zero. | Brake release stage: Brakes are released by recharging brake pipe to 5 kg/cm2 pressure through the driver’s brake valve. ? The distributor valve isolated the brake cylinder from the auxiliary reservoirs. ? The brake cylinder pressure is vented to atmosphere through DV and brake cylinder moves inwards. [pic] BRAKE CYLINDER Every coach fitted with air brake system, have two brake cylinders for actuating brake rigging for the application and release of brakes. During application of brakes the brake cylinder develops mechanical brake power by outward movements of its piston assembly, by receiving air pressure from auxiliary reservoir through the distributor valve.This mechanical power is transmitted to the brake shoes through a combination of levers. During release action of brakes the compression spring provided in the brake cylinder brings back the rigging to its original position. The cylinder body is made out of sheet or cast iron and carries the mounting bracket, air inlet connection rib and flanges to the cylinder body a dome cover is fitted with the help of bolts and nuts. The dome cover enclosed the spring and passage for the piston trunk which is connected to the piston by screws.The piston is cast iron having a groove in which piston packing is seated . piston packing is of oil and abrasion resistant rubber material and is snap fit to the piston head. The packing as self lubricating characteristic which ensure adequate lubrication over a long service period and extends seal life considerably. AUXILARY RESERVOIR The auxiliary reservoir is a cylindrical vessel made of sheet metal. On both the ends of the reservoir, flanges are provided for pipe connections. One end of the auxiliary reservoir is charged through the feed pipe to a pressure of 6 kg/cm2 .At the bottom of the auxiliary reservoir, a drain cock is provided for draining out the condensate/moisture . The auxiliary reservoir should be overhauled in every POH. DISTRIBUTOR VALVE Distributor valve is the most important functional component of air brake system and is also referred as the heart of air brake system. The distributor valve sense drop and rise i n brake pipe pressure for brake application and release capacity. It is connected to the brake pipe through branch pipe.Various other components connected to the distributor valve are auxiliary reserve reservoir, brake cylinders and control reservoir. FUNCTION OF DISTRIBUTOR VALVE For application and release of brakes the brake pipe pressure has to be reduced and increased respectively with the help of driver’s brake vale. During these operations the distributor valve mainly performs the following function. i) Charges the brake system to regime pressure during normal running condition. ii) Help in graduated brake application, when pressure in brake pipe is reduced in steps. ii) Helps in graduated brake release, when pressure in brake pipe is increased in steps. iv) Quickly propagates reduction of pressure in brake pipe throughout the length of the train by arranging additional air pressure reduction locally inside the distributor valve. v) Limits maximum brake cylinder pressu re for full service applicationemergency application. vi) Control the time for brake application and brake release depending on service conditions. vii) Facilitates complete discharge of air from the air brake system manually with the help of operating lever. iii) Protects overcharging of control reservoir when the brake pipe pressure is quickly increased for releasing the brakes. C3W DISTRIBUTOR VALVE The C3W distributor valve consists of: 1) Main body 2) Quick service valve 3) Main valve 4) Limiting device 5) Double release valve 6) Auxiliary reservoir check valve 7) Cut off valve 8) Application choke 9) Release choke OPERATION OF C3W DISTRIBUTOR VALVE For effective functioning of air brake system, the distributor valve has to operate effectively during 1) Charging stage 2) Application stage 3) Release stage 1) CHARGING STAGEDuring charging stage the compressed air flows from the brake pipe and enters into the brake pipe chamber of main valve, cutoff valve and quick service valve. Due to this pressure the various valve get activated and perform as under MAIN VALVE Due to brake pipe pressure acting on top face of the large diaphragm, differential pressure acts on the main valve. As a result the hollow stem moves downward there by connecting brake cylinder to atmosphere. In addition these because of BP pressure at top of large diaphragm it press ring and trigger. This action unlocks the CR release valve by raising upward the locking rod.CUT OFF VALVE As brake pipe pressure enters into the cut off valve it flows through the solex jet and valve, (which is held upon due to action of BP pressure on bottom side of the lower diaphragm) to the control reservoir, as the CR & BP pressure equalizes, diaphragm assembly comedown and valve reach to lap position. The control reservoir pressure now also reaches to the upper portion of top diaphragm of quick service valve and the bottom portion of large diaphragm of main valve simultaneously, the auxiliary reservoir is charge d with BP pressure reaching from cut off valve chamber- via auxiliary reservoir check valve. ) APPLICATION STAGE EMERGENCY APPLICATION During emergency application the brake pipe pressure is reduced rapidly to 0 kg / cm2 by the driver’s brake valve. Because of this drop the position of the various valves will be as described below. MAIN VALVE: With drop in BP pressure to 0 kg / cm2 differential pressure acts across the large diaphragm. As a result the hollow stem is moved in upward direction and pushes the check valve there by opening the passage for entry of auxiliary reservoir pressure at top portion of main valve. This pressure then gets a way to break cylinder through limiting device.The brake cylinder thus gets charged with the compressed air. This pressure is known as BC-pressure. LIMITING DEVICE The auxiliary reservoir pressure, which entered into the top position of main valve, now enters the limiting device through the valve, which is held open. From limiting device air pressure now enter the brake cylinder. When the BC pressure rises to 3. 8 kg / cm2 the upwards force on the diaphragm lifts the guide and the valve at the bottom of the limiting device gets closed. Thus further entry of air into the brake cylinder stops. When the brake cylinder pressure reaches 3. kg / cm2 this pressure i. e. BC pressure act on Top face of small diaphragm of main valve ? Bottom face of upper diaphragm of cut off valve ? Top (small chamber) of quick service valve Now because of this BC pressure acting at main valve small diaphragm, the hollow stem is pulled down. As a result the check valve at top comes down to close stage and assume lap position with the hollow stem closing further entry of AR pressure. CUT OFF VALVE: In cut off valve the bottom face of the upper diaphragm is subjected to BC pressure because of which guide is lifted.Also the upper portion of lower diaphragm is subjected to CR pressure, which pushes the total assembly downwards. This action close s the valve off cut off valve, these by isolating it from control reservoir pressure. QUICK SERVICE VALVE In quick service valve BC pressure acts at the top of valve and control reservoir pressure act at top face of upper diaphragm, As a result the stem is pushed down BP pressure inside the DV is at â€Å"0† kg / cm2 the residue BP pressure from the bulb of quick service valve will flow back and vent to atmosphere with the BP line.GRADUATED APPLICATION During graduated brake application the brake pipe pressure is draped in steps by driver is brake valve. The movement of various valve assemblies is almost in the some direction as during emergency application, but their movement is comparatively less. In the main valve however after each application the hollow stem assumes the lap position with the check valve. In addition to this during graduated application the bottom valve of limiting device is held open to allow compressed air to enter into brake cylinder. When BC pressure reaches 3. kg / cm2 the bottom valve in the limiting device gets closed, similarly at the time of full service application as the BC pressure reaches 3. 8 + 0. 1 kg / cm2 within specified time, the position of various valve assemblies will be the same as described above. 3) RELEASE STAGE When the brake pipe pressure is increased in steps for graduated release of breaks the position of different valve is as described below. MAIN VALVE At the top face of large diaphragm as the BP pressure increases, the hollow stem is moved down ward leaving its lap position with check valve.The BC pressure thus finds a passage from top of hollow stem to exhaust to the atmosphere. This action reduces pressure on top of the upper diaphragm and the hollow stem engine lifts up to lap position. It closes the hollow stem top portion. The some cycle is repeated when BP is increased during next stage. In this way graduated release effect is obtained. CUT OFF VALVE; As the BP pressure increase the position of cut off valve remains similar as in graduated application i. e. the cut off valve will remain close isolating CR pressure from brake pipe pressure. QUICK SERVICE VALVEWhen the BP pressure is increased then as explained above from the main valve the BC pressure gets exhausted to atmosphere. This action gradually reduces the BC pressure. When BC pressure reduces to 0. 8 kg / cm2 during brake release, the force at the top of the quick service valve, becomes comparatively less than BP pressure present in Quick service valve. As a result the valve at top gets lifted thereby giving passage to blocked BP pressure to atmosphere with the exhaust of BP pressure the quick services valve of the distributor valve again gets ready for next brake application. MANUAL RELEASEDouble release valve provides for accelerated manual brake release when is particularly useful during shunting operation. A short pull on the lever of double release valve is all that is needed. This action opens the control re servoir release chock valve, which is then held open by the locking rod, venting control reservoir through the open control reservoir release check valve brings the main valve to release position and exhaust the brake cylinder pressure through the hollow stem. PASSENGER EMERGENCY ALARM SYSTEM It consists of two components: 1. Passenger emergency alarm signal device (PEASD) 2. Passenger emergency alarm valve(PAEAV)These two components in combination give an indication to the e driver that some passenger is in need to stop the train. The indication is transmitted from the coach when the passenger pulls the chain. Passenger Emergency Alarm Signal Device:- PEASD is a manually operated pilot vent valve. It is operated through mechanical force exerted by pulling the alarm chain provided inside the coaches for emergency use. Passenger Emergency Alarm Valve:- Passenger coaches are fitted with an alarm chain pull arrangement. Alarm chain is connected to the two PEASD which are situated at ei ther side of one end wall of the coach.PEASD’S are connected to the PEAV through a 10mm control pipe. BP pressure is fed to the PEAV through a 20mm branch pipe, in the event of alarm chain pull air is depleted form the control pipe connecting PEAV and PEASD causing BP pressure to exhaust through the 4 mm choke in the PEAV. This causes partial application of brakes. This drop in pressure in the brake pipe line is also observed in flow meter fitted in the locomotive for the driver to stop the train. LIFITING SHOP The main constructional and design feature of the ICF/RCF all-coil bogies, used on mainline BG coaches are briefly described as follows: |S. No. Description |Parameters | |1 |Maximum Axle load bearing |16,25t,13t | | |capacity | | |2 |Wheel base |2896 mm | |3 |Wheel Diameter |915 mm | |4 |Axle guidance |Telescopic axle guide with oil damping | |5 |Primary suspension |Coil spring | |6 |Secondary suspension |Coil spring | |7 |Shock absorbers |Vertical dashpot in prim ary suspension | | | |Hydraulic double acting vertical shock | | | |Absorber in secondary suspension. |8 |Transfer of coach body weight |Through bogie side bearer pitched | | | |at 1600mm | ALL-COIL ICF BOGIE The bogies being currently manufactured by ICF/RCF which have been accepted as standards of the Indian Railways and are of an all welded light weight construction. Axles are located on the bogie by telescopic dash pot and axle guide assemblies. Helical coil springs are used in both the primary and the secondary stages. The axle guide device provides viscous damping across primary springs while hydraulic dampers are provided across the secondary stage.Dampers are protected against misalignment by resilient fittings. Isolation of vibration is effected by rubber pads in primary and secondary suspension. Deflection due to the tare weight is almost equally divided between axles and bolster springs. Weight of coach body is transferred to its bogie by side bearers consist of lubricate d metal slides immersed in oil baths. No vertical weight transfer is affected through bogie pivot and the pivot acts merely as a centre of rotation and serves to transmit tractive / braking forces only. BOGIE ASSEMBLY The bogie frame and components are of all-welded light construction with a wheel base of 2. 896 metre.The wheel sets are provided with self-aligning spherical roller bearings mounted in cast steel axle box housings. Helical coil springs are used in both primary and secondary suspension. The weight of the coach is transferred through side bearers on the bogie bolsters. The ends of the bogie bolsters rest on the bolster helical springs over the lower spring beam suspended from the bogie frame by the inclined swing links at an angle 70 . Hydraulic shock absorbers and dash pots are provided in the secondary and primary suspensions respectively to damp vertical oscillations. AXLE BOX GUIDE WITH DASH POT ARRANGEMENT Axle box guides are of cylindrical type welded to the botto m flanges of the bogie side frame with close dimensional accuracy.These guides together with lower spring seats located over the axle box wings house the axle box springs and also serve as shock absorbers. These guides are fitted with guide caps having nine holes of diameter 5 mm equidistant through which oil in the lower spring seat passes under pressure during dynamic oscillation of coach and provide necessary damping to primary suspension to enhance better riding equality of coach. This type of rigid axle box guide arrangement eliminates any longitudinal or transverse relative movement between the axles and the bogie frame. The quantity of oil required to achieve 40 mm oil lever above the guide cap in modified arrangement is approximately 1. 6 liters and in unmodified arrangement is approximately 1. 4 litters. AIR VENT SCREWSOn the bogie side frames, directly above the dash-pots, tapped holes are provided for replenishing oil in the dash pots. Special screws with copper asbestos washers are screwed on the tapped hole to make it air light. BOGIE BOLSTER SUSPENSION The bolster rests on the bolster coil springs- two at each end, located on the lower spring beam which is suspended from the bogie side frame by means of bolster-spring-suspension (BSS) hangers on either side. The two anchor links diagonally positioned are provided with silent block bushes. The links prevent any relative movement between the bogie frame and coach body. SPRINGS In ICF bogie, helical springs are used in both primary and secondary suspension.The springs are manufactured from peeled and centre less ground bar of chrome vanadium/chrome molybdenum steel conforming to STR No. WD-01-HLS-94(Rev. 1) CENTRE PIVOT ARRANGEMENT The centre pivot pin joins the body with the bogie and transmits the tractive and braking forces on the bogies. It does not transmit any vertical load. It is equipped with rubber silent block bushes which tend to centralize the bogies with respect to the body and, to some extent, control and damp the angular oscillations of the bogies SIDE BEARERS The side bearers are provided to support the weight of the coach. It consists of a machined steel wearing plate immersed in an oil bath and a floating bronze-wearing piece with a spherical top surface kept in it, on both sides of the bogie bolster.The coach body rests on the top spherical surface of these bronze-wearing pieces through the corresponding attachment on the bottom of the body-bolster. The whole arrangement is provided with a cover to prevent entry of dust in the oil sump. ANCHOR LINKS The floating bogie bolster which supports the coach body is held in position longitudinally by the anchor links which are pinned to the bolster sides and the bogie Transoms. One anchor link is provided on each side of the bolster diagonally across. The links can swivel universally to permit the bolster to rise and fall and sway side wards. They are designed to take the tractive and braking forces. The anchor link s are fitted with silent block bushes SILENT BLOCKThis is a synthetic rubber bush fitted in anchor link and center pivot of ICF bogies to transmit force without shock and reduce noise. EQUALISING STAYS This Device has been provided on bogies between the lower spring plank and the bolster to prevent lateral thrust on the bolster springs which have not been designed to take lateral force. These links have pin connection at both ends and therefore can swivel freely. BOLESTER SPRING SUSPENSION HANGERS (BSS HANGERS) In the secondary suspension the bolster is supported on helical coil springs which are placed on the lower spring plank is suspended from the bogie side frame through BSS hanger on hanger blocks. SHOCK ABSORBERSHydraulic shock absorber is also provided to work in parallel with the bolster springs to facilitate damping for vertical oscillations. WORKSHOP MAINTENANCE- BOGIE SHOP 1. Coach Lifting 2. Bogie cleaning 3. Bogie dismantling 4. Component cleaning 5. Attention to compon ents 6. Repair of components 7. Bogie assembly 8. Load testing and adjustment 9. Lowering of coach 10. Final adjustment OBJECT:- To study inspection & testing procedure of helical spring of coaches also suggest methods of improvement to reduce rejection & prevention from corrosion. USE OF SPRINGS:- Springs are used in the suspension system of coaches to absorbs the jerks developed during running of coach and provide comfort to the passengers. INSPECTION OF SPRINGS:- Springs are inspected during every POH.The inspection procedure is as follows: ? Springs which are lowered from the bogie are sent for the washing in spring section. Here the springs are dipped in the caustic soda tank for 12 to 16 hrs. so the oil, grease, scale etc are cleaned. ? Springs are then washed by the water jet. ? Visually inspect the springs for breakage, welding marks, cracks and corrosion pits. ? Shot peening for surface finish and fatigue relief of springs. ? Cracks are tested in magna flux machine. ? Codin g of springs ? Anti corrosive coating of red oxide, and painted. ? Load test ? Grouping SHOT PEENING:- Shot peening is done for the surface finish and fatigue relief of springs.In shot peening process small particles of chilled iron are blasted on the springs with high velocity, so these particles works as abrasive and take away a fine layer of metal with it. And the surface of springs looks clean. Rotary Table Type Shot Blasting machine is used for the shot peening process. This machine has two tables which alternately loaded by springs. The max. dia of job is 1800 mm and load carrying capacity is 2500kg.. At a time 25 axle box springs or 18 bolster springs can be shot peened by the machine. TESTING OF CRACKS:- It is nondestructive method of testing. Magna flux machine is used for detection of cracks in spring. The spring is first bathed by the solution of flouroscent, iron powder and kerosene.Then the springs are magnetized by the machine with clamping in machine itself. When the springs are magnetized, the springs are lightened by the ultraviolet lamp. Since the process is done in the dark room, so if the springs have cracks then this flouroscent shines which penetrated in the springs due to crack ness and detection of cracks is done so the spring will rejected. LOAD TEST:- After coding and coating of paint the springs are sent to the load test. The springs are tested for the 2000ton load and this load is kept for 1 to 2 minutes. If the springs can sustain this load with limited deflection then springs are selected else rejected. METHODS OF IMPROVEMENT:- Use the springs made of standardized material as suggested by Railway’s Standard. ? The springs should be made of fine grained spring steel. ? Use the springs manufactured by the authentic company and also notice the manufacturing process of springs should be according to the standardized method. ? 100% of springs should be checked for all the test procedure. PREVENTION FROM CORROSION:- Springs shoul d be coated with the anticorrosive paint and black bituminous paint. ———————– Technician 2 Technician 1 Senior technician Supervisor Supervisor Junior Engineer 2 Junior Engineer 2 Junior Engineer 1 Junior Engineer 1 Section Engineer Senior Section Engineer (SSE) Helper